The Cretaceous–Cenozoic expansion of tropical forests created canopy space that was subsequently occupied by diverse epiphytic communities including Eupolypod ferns. Eupolypods proliferated in this more stressful niche, where lower competition enabled the adaptive radiation of thousands of species. Here, we examine whether xylem traits helped shape the Cenozoic radiation of Eupolypod ferns. We characterized the petiole xylem anatomy of 39 species belonging to the Eupolypod I and Eupolypod II clades occupying the epiphytic, hemiepiphytic, and terrestrial niche, and we assessed vulnerability to embolism in a subset of species. The transition to the canopy was associated with reduced xylem content and smaller tracheid diameters, but no differences were found in species vulnerability to embolism and pit membrane thickness. Phylogenetic analyses support selection for traits associated with reduced water transport in Eupolypod 1 species. We posit that in Eupolypod epiphytes, selection favored water retention via thicker leaves and lower stomatal density over higher rates of water transport. Consequently, lower leaf water loss was coupled with smaller quantities of xylem and narrower tracheid diameters. Traits associated with water conservation were evident in terrestrial Eupolypod 1 ferns and may have predisposed this clade toward radiation in the canopy.
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Summary The expansion of angiosperm‐dominated forests in the Cretaceous and early Cenozoic had a profound effect on terrestrial biota by creating novel ecological niches. The majority of modern fern lineages are hypothesized to have arisen in response to this expansion, particularly fern epiphytes that radiated into the canopy. Recent evidence, however, suggests that epiphytism does not correlate with increased diversification rates in ferns, calling into question the role of the canopy habitat in fern evolution.
To understand the role of the canopy in structuring fern community diversity, we investigated functional traits of fern sporophytes and gametophytes across a broad phylogenetic sampling on the island of Moorea, French Polynesia, including > 120 species and representatives of multiple epiphytic radiations.
While epiphytes showed convergence in small size and a higher frequency of noncordate gametophytes, they showed greater functional diversity at the community level relative to terrestrial ferns.
These results suggest previously overlooked functional diversity among fern epiphytes, and raise the hypothesis that while the angiosperm canopy acted as a complex filter that restricted plant size, it also facilitated diversification into finely partitioned niches. Characterizing these niche axes and adaptations of epiphytic ferns occupying them should be a priority for future pteridological research.
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Premise Pressure
– volume curves are a widely used analytical framework to derive several key physiological traits related to plant–water relations, including a species’ turgor loss point, osmotic potential at full turgor, and the elasticity of cell walls. We developed a novel protocol, including the preparation and treatment of fern gametophytes, to generate data for pressure– volume curve analyses using thermocouple psychrometry.Methods and Results Gametophytes of the fern species
Polystichum lemmonii were grown from spore, harvested, and subjected to a series of drying intervals. We constructed pressure–volume curves using thermocouple psychrometers to calculate gametophyte water potential and a balance to measure relative water loss.Conclusions We present the first protocol for fern gametophyte pressure–volume curves that can accurately determine key physiological traits in fern gametophytes such as the turgor loss point and osmotic potential at full turgor.
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Abstract Opportunistic diversification has allowed ferns to radiate into epiphytic niches in angiosperm dominated landscapes. However, our understanding of how ecophysiological function allowed establishment in the canopy and the potential transitionary role of the hemi‐epiphytic life form remain unclear. Here, we surveyed 39 fern species in Costa Rican tropical forests to explore epiphytic trait divergence in a phylogenetic context. We examined leaf responses to water deficits in terrestrial, hemi‐epiphytic and epiphytic ferns and related these findings to functional traits that regulate leaf water status. Epiphytic ferns had reduced xylem area (−63%), shorter stipe lengths (−56%), thicker laminae (+41%) and reduced stomatal density (−46%) compared to terrestrial ferns. Epiphytic ferns exhibited similar turgor loss points, higher osmotic potential at saturation and lower tissue capacitance after turgor loss than terrestrial ferns. Overall, hemi‐epiphytic ferns exhibited traits that share characteristics of both terrestrial and epiphytic species. Our findings clearly demonstrate the prevalence of water conservatism in both epiphytic and hemi‐epiphytic ferns, via selection for anatomical and structural traits that avoid leaf water stress. Even with likely evolutionarily constrained physiological function, adaptations for drought avoidance have allowed epiphytic ferns to successfully endure the stresses of the canopy habitat.
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Summary Sex expression of homosporous ferns is controlled by multiple factors, one being the antheridiogen system. Antheridiogens are pheromones released by sexually mature female fern gametophytes, turning nearby asexual gametophytes precociously male. Nevertheless, not all species respond. It is still unknown how many fern species use antheridiogens, how the antheridiogen system evolved, and whether it is affected by polyploidy and/or apomixis.
We tested the response of 68 fern species to antheridiogens in cultivation. These results were combined with a comprehensive review of literature to form the largest dataset of antheridiogen interactions to date. Analyzed species also were coded as apomictic or sexual and diploid or polyploid.
Our final dataset contains a total of 498 interactions involving 208 species (
c . 2% of all ferns). About 65% of studied species respond to antheridiogen. Multiple antheridiogen types were delimited and their evolution is discussed. Antheridiogen responsiveness was not significantly affected by apomixis or polyploidy.Antheridiogens are widely used by ferns to direct sex expression. The antheridiogen system likely evolved multiple times and provides homosporous ferns with the benefits often associated with heterospory, such as increased rates of outcrossing. Despite expectations, antheridiogens may be beneficial to polyploids and apomicts.
